Critical Thinking
    Critical thinking has become a hot topic in education today.  Not only is it
introduced as a subject of study unto itself, the concept of critical thinking is applied in
all subject areas.  It is currently taught as an integral learning tool for teachers in training
at schools of teacher education.  Peter Facione states, “Education is nothing more, nor
less, than learning to think!”
    The common feeling in education today is that students must become critical
thinkers in order to assimilate and accommodate information, thus becoming a true learner.
    The ideas and activities set forth in the following pages will help elementary school students develop a variety of critical thinking skills in grades two through six.  Teachers
using these activities will encourage and foster critical thinking among their students.
    It may be easier to understand the concepts of critical thinking as it is discussed in
terms of student behavior and performance.  Ferrett in Peak Performance (1997).
proposes the following:

Attributes of a critical thinker
    asks pertinent questions
    assesses statements and arguments
    is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
    has a sense of curiosity
    is interested in finding new solutions
    is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
    is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts
    listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
    sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self assessment
    suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered
    looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
    is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found
    looks for proof
    examines problems closely
    is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant

Definitions
    The term has become so widely used that critical thinking may mean different
things depending on its context and application.  Some useful definitions appear on the
web site “Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project”  Longview Community
College; Definitions of Critical Thinking .

Critical thinking is the development of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns.

Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to or what not to believe.

The purpose of critical thinking is to achieve understanding, evaluate view points, and
solve problems. Since all three areas involve the asking of questions, we can say that
critical thinking is the questioning or inquiry we engage in when we seek to understand,
evaluate, or resolve.

Critical thinkers: distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed
observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions
based on sound logic and solid evidence.

Thinking is a skill ... it can be taught.

Thirteen essential thinking skills:
     Observing
     Comparing
     Classifying
     Imagining
     Hypothesizing
     Criticizing
     Looking for Assumptions
     Collecting and Organizing Data
     Summarizing
     Coding
     Interpreting
     Problem Solving
     Decision Making
                         Author Unknown

Bloom's Taxonomy
    Finally, the teacher must understand Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives
        [See appendix].  Bloom lists these “abilities” in ascending order:
I.   Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole
         theories); bringing to mind
II.  Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting
         (explaining or summarizing); predicting outcome and effects
III. Application: ability to use learned material in a new situation; apply rules, laws,
         methods, theories
IV. Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying,
         concluding
V.  Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole; unique communication;
        create abstract relations
VI. Evaluation: ability to judge value for purpose; base on criteria; support judgment
        with reason.

Ways to Encourage Critical Thinking

    Three ways to improve critical thinking is by encouraging students to ask good
questions, practice good thinking, and find answers using resources.  I have created a
small trophy and certificate for students who exhibit each of these positive critical
thinking behaviors.  These awards may be used in all subject areas and at anytime.  For
example, when a students asks a “Good Question”, the trophy goes on the student's desk
for the day, or until another student earns it.  Also, the student is given a paper certificate
to be taken home.

Good Question Award
    A “Good Question” is a question that shows the student is thinking about the
subject, concepts, or ideas under study.  Generally, these questions are in the higher areas
of Bloom’s Taxonomy; application (in the lower grades), analysis, synthesis, or
evaluation.  A “Good Question” may also show creativity.
    As the award is used, students will begin to identify “Good Questions” posed by
fellow students and direct the teacher to give the award.

Good Thinking Award
  “Good Thinking” reveals that the student is entering the higher thought
processes; analysis, synthesis, or evaluation.  “Good thinking” may also entail solving a
multi-step problem or coming up with an original idea or creative way to solve a problem.
Of course, the teacher must challenge the students with questions that require
higher order reasoning.

I Found The Answer Award
    The “I Found The Answer” award is given when a student has taken the initiative
to look for and find an answer using a resource other than the text.  This award will
motivate students to find answers, rather than simply accepting “I Don't Know” as the
answer.  Students through application and practice will learn to use the dictionary,
almanac, thesaurus, encyclopedia, index, glossary, maps, and the internet.  Also, students
should learn to ask people for answers.
    The best questions for research come out of daily classroom lessons and discussions in
all subject areas.  The teacher may also pose a “Question of the Day” to be researched.

    In order to use these awards to their highest potential, the teacher must be
competent and comfortable in asking higher order questions, accepting more than one
possible answer to a question, and practice not answering all student questions.

Games and Puzzles
    Games can be a useful learning tool.  While playing games students may apply
their knowledge and skills while interacting in a small group.  Most games involve
planning, observation, logic and reasoning, calculations of chance, observing, using
information, and creating and testing possible solutions.  All of these “game skills” are
components of critical thinking.
    Puzzles come in a wide variety of types from purely academic, which rely on knowledge
or reasoning skills, to those which require acute observation, such as a jigsaw puzzle.  No matter what the puzzle, the one commonality of all puzzles is they require critical thinking.
    Why jigsaw puzzles?  In order to complete a jigsaw puzzle students must observe
and compare size, shape, color, and patterns; use trial and error to complete the task; and
develop visual memory.  Students experience working together toward a common goal,
and participate in an activity that requires days or weeks to complete.

Encourage Creativity
    SCAMPER is an excellent classroom activity which encourages students to think
creatively.  In this activity the student looks at an object and develops original ideas
about the object and different uses of the object.  SCAMPER is an acronym which helps
direct students in this process.

  Substitute some aspect of it
  Combine elements with something else
  Adapt or Alter an aspect of it
  Minify or Magnify an aspect of it
  Put some part of it to other uses
  Eliminate an aspect of it
  Reverse an aspect of it

    Scamper may be used as an independent, small group, or whole class activity.
Students must be allowed to brainstorm ideas, making it clear that all ideas must be
accepted.  I usually have the students work independently for 5 - 7 minutes, then share
their ideas with the class.  Teachers may use small groups and develop a scoring system,
giving a point for each idea that no other group has written.  [See Appendix for blank
Scamper worksheet]

    Visit “Robert Alan Black’s Creativity Challenges”, Creativity Challenge Table of Contents,
an excellent site of 52 challenges which will increase your creativeness, expand your creative thinking skills, spark your creativity, and encourage you to learn fun ways to tap and improve your creativity.

What Do They Have in Common?
    A simple activity that promotes critical thinking and creativity is listing 2 words
and asking “What do they have in common?”  While students may easily see differences
among items, finding similarities will be much more challenging.  This activity also
promotes oral communication and explaining your answer.  This may done individually,
with a partner, small groups, or even as a whole class brainstorming session.  This
activity is part of my students’ first assignments as they come in the morning.  Students
are asked to write an answer and then we discuss their responses as a whole class.
    Teachers should accept any answer that may be explained as a commonality,
being sure students only deal with the attributes of the items and not what they could be
or do.  For example, for “bell and whistle” I would accept both are “made of metal” or
“make a sound” but would not allow “I own both of them.”
    For a real challenge, have students write names of objects on a small piece of
paper and put them all in a bag.  Each day select a pair of words and challenge the
students to recognize “What do they have in common?”

Another Version
    “What Do they have in common?” may be taken one step farther.  Using a pair of
words, the commonality must be expressed in one word.  Students must think of multiple
meanings and multiple uses of the words.

Word Chains
    Words Chains is an oral language game that encourages critical thinking by
requiring students to think about items and classify items into categories.  The teacher
gives a category, and selects a volunteer for the first word.  Then each next word must
start with the ending letter of the preceding word.

To speed the game along, change the category once either group is unable to quickly answer.
Words Chains may be played in a variety of ways: one vs. one, small group vs.
    small group, half of class vs. half of class, or whole group.
Scoring: If you wish to keep score:
   1 Point - correct response
   -1 Point - incorrect or repeated response or unable to answer

    Words Chains encourages creativity as students try to connect words they know
into a classification.  I use Word Chains as a short filler when the class is waiting in line
and as a whole group thinking activity.

Word Chains Category Ideas
Something you would find in (at)  a(n)
    school   grocery store   garage   carnival   mall   doctor’s office   laboratory   hospital
    kitchen   sports stadium   restaurant   campsite   beach   television station   barber shop
    desert   skating rink   art class   purse   computer   toy store   library   car
    post office   amusement park   arcade   museum   cruise ship   National Park
    fire station   rodeo   zoo

things made of: glass, plastic, metal, wood, cloth
things that are soft, hard, fragile, strong, bendable, smooth, heavy, light
things that are bigger than ...,  smaller than ..., heavier than ...
things that are connected with a holiday
subject area or the topic under study
geographic names  people’s jobs  cars   plants
electronic devices  transportation  furniture  clothing
things you wear  inventions  names   plants
capitalized words  games/toys  music/songs  animal

Words with Multiple Meanings
 A critical thinker looks at words and realizes many words may be used in
different ways.  Introducing this skill to students will improve their reading and writing.
When discussing word meanings the concepts of literal and figurative meanings must be
taught. [See Appendix for word list]

Classroom Use
Word A Day - Put a new word on the board each morning.  Allow students time to
    think about or look up the word.  Discuss later in the day.

Spelling or Vocabulary Lists - Look at the list (word) and ask students what words
 could have more than one meaning.

New Words - As new words are encountered in class, list them on the blackboard.
     When you have that extra minute ask students if they remember the meanings or
     can use them in a sentence.
  Keep this ongoing list in a corner of the blackboard.  Do not erase the words daily.
  Erase the “old” words when the list becomes more than 5 - 7 words.  As the
  “old” words come down you may add them to a Word Wall, a writing bulletin board, or
  make a small card for each and put them in a box for future use.

Acronyms
    “Acronyms” is a linguistic critical thinking activity which requires some
creativity.  Students must create their own meanings for common acronyms.  Acronyms
are words made up of the initial letters of its meaning, such as SCUBA, self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus and SNAFU, situation normal all fouled up.  Acronyms
may be pronounced letter by letter, such as CPR.  Initialism is the term for an
abbreviation pronounced as the names of the individual letters.
    This idea originated when I was wearing a shirt that said “NYC” in my fourth
grade class.  Most students did not know what the letters represented and started coming
up with their own ideas.  Their responses included; “Nice Young Children”, “Never Yell
Chocolate”, “Nine Yummy Cookies”, and my favorite, “No You Cant”.
    These abbreviations are everywhere and are part of our everyday life.  They are
businesses (ATT, IBM, TWA), government agencies (NASA, CIA, FEMA), television
networks (ABC, CNN, ESPN),  organizations (NATO, UN, NOW), items (BMW, CRT,
VCR),  jobs (EMT, CPA, RN), and a mainstay in sports (RBI, TKO, TD).

Acronyms
WWW  Worldwide Web                        AOL America Online
ESP  Extra Sensory Perception               ASAP  As Soon As Possible
CIT  Counselor In Training                   AKC  American Kennel Club
PDQ  Pretty Darn Quick                       GPA  Grade Point Average
GNP  Gross National Product                ZIP  Zone Improvement Plan
SRO  Standing Room Only                   RSVP  Respondez S’il Vous Plait
CD  Compact Disc                              DJ  Disc Jockey
AM  Amplitude Modulation                   FM  Frequency Modulation
TBA  To Be Announced                       ETA  Estimated Time of Arrival
AKA  Also Known As                           YMCA  Young Men’s Christian Association
RPM  Revolutions Per Minute                MPH   Miles Per Hour
ATV  All Terrain Vehicle                       SWAK  Sealed With A Kiss
IQ  Intelligence Quotient                     CPA  Certified Public Accountant
GOP  Grand Old Party                         CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
CIA  Central Intelligence Agency            DNA  Deoxyribonucleic Acid
TNT  Trinitrotoluene                            RAM  Random Access Memory
VHS  Very High Speed                         URL  Uniform Resource Locator
VIP  Very Important Person                  HMO  Health Maintenance Organization
RN  Registered Nurse                          ACLU  American Civil Liberties Union
POW  Prisoner Of War                         VISTA  Volunteers In Service To America
NASA  National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Classroom Resources
101 Fresh and Fun Critical Thinking Activities cross-curricular  128 p.  $12.95    Gr. 1-3
180 Icebreakers to Strengthen Critical Thinking Skills and Problem-Solving Skills  96 p.
    $9.95 Middle Grades
A Case of Red Herrings  32 story mysteries per book   $12.95   Gr. 4-9,   7 - up
Bob Barlow’s Book of Brain Boosters 125 Writing Prompts That Develop Creative
    and Critical Thinking Skills  64 p.  $9.95   Gr. 4-8
Brain Teasers “Sharpen students critical thinking skills with brain teasing activities.”
    80 p. $9.95   Gr. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 3-5, 5-8     USA 4-8,  Geography,
    20th Century,   Pre-Geometry,  Math Problem Solving,  Pre-Algebra
Classroom Quickies  Over 25 verbal, spatial, mathematical, and figural activities in
    each book.  $8.95 Levels: Beginning,   Intermediate,   Advanced
Clever Lateral Thinking Puzzles Harshman, Edward J.  Sterling Publishing Co. 1997
    99 puzzles   The answer/story ending is given, you must deduce how/why it
    makes sense    Ask only Yes/No questions  Clue questions are given
Critical Thinking Activities in Patterns, Imagery, Logic  Dale Seymour and Ed Beardslee
    $15.50  Gr.  K-3,  4-6,  7-12
Dr. DooRiddles   John H. Doolittle    Associative Reasoning Activities   $9.95
    Gr. K-2,  4-7,  8 - adult
Hang-Ups Linda Lew Dollard   Ideas to Ignite Creativity and Imagination   Gr. 4-8
Imagination Works Hands-on reproducible activities  48 p.  $8.95 Gr. 3-6
In All Probability Investigations in probability and statistics   109 pp.   Gr. 3-6
Instant Math Games That Teach  38 reproducible games  $9.98   Gr. 2-5
Investigative Patterns: Symmetry and Tessellations $24.95   Gr. 5-8
    Set of 4 Mirrors  $4.50
Language Smarts Sharpen students’ reading comprehension, vocabulary, word use,
    verbal sequencing and classification, spelling through eight different types of language
    activities.  100 activities per book   $11.95 Gr. 2-5,   4-7
Light Up Their Minds Series “Provides students with the opportunity to think about and
    use, not just recall, the facts they have learned”  48 p.  $7.95     Gr. 2-5 and
    Middle Grades Language, Math, Science, Social Studies, Creative Thinking,
    Word Power, Self-Concept, The Seasons
Logical Thinking Skills Challenging puzzles and fun activities to sharpen thinking skills
    96 p.  $9.95 Middle School
Look! Listen! Think! “Activities to exercise students thinking skills”  $7.95 Gr.  2-3,  4-5,  6-7
Mastermind, Exercises in Critical Thinking  Reproducible activities
    Gr. K-3  120 p. $9.95  Gr. 4-6  88 p.  $10.95
Mathematics Their Way: Beyond the Book Gr. K-4   40 math projects
Mental Aerobics   442 Thinking Workouts  “Teacher directed mind puzzlers from all
    areas of the curriculum”   96 p. $9.95 Middle School
Mind Benders  Classic deductive reasoning puzzles   32 p.  $8.95  Gr. K-2,  2 - up,  6 - up
Plexers  “Each puzzle is a pictorial code for a common phrase, an idiomatic expression;
    or the name of a person, place, or thing.”  40 p.   $9.95    Gr. 4 - up
Powerthink  “Gives students the tools they need to develop solid critical thinking skills.
    As they work together in small groups, they will learn to evaluate information,
    differentiate between fact and opinion, and look at both sides of an issue.”  64 p.
    $6.95 Grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Scratch Your Brain Where It Itches  Sharpen problem solving skills and improve
    understanding of basic math concepts    60-122 brain teasers per book $9.95
    Gr. 1-3, 3-6, 7-9     $10.95  Pre-Algebra - AlgebraII,  Geometry
Think-A-Grams  Large format for bulletin board or wall display  $11.95   Gr. 5-7,  6-9,  8-up
Visual Discrimination: Exploring and Solving Picture Patterns    $8.95   Gr. 1-12

Web Sources
Center for Critical Thinking Classroom Material Resources   Lesson Plans
      http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/trc.html
Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum  Longview Community College
    http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac/index.htm
    Definitions    http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac/definitions.htm
Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts   Essay   Peter A. Facione 1997
    http://www.calpress.com/critical.html
Critical Thinking Books and Software   Vendor  Online Catalog
    http://www.criticalthinking.com/
Dr. Labush's Links To Learning   Over 1200 Links for Teachers, Parents, and Students
    http://www.netrox.net/~labush
Foundation for Critical Thinking   Events  Library  Resources   Bookstore
    http://www.criticalthinking.org/
If X, Then Y: Teaching Critical Thinking Skills  Gwynn M. Powell  From Camping Magazine
    January 2000    http://www.findarticles.com/m1249/1_73/59176764/p1/article.jhtml
Just Think  Media Literacy Education   http://www.justthink.org/
Learn A Little More   Original worksheets and Activities   Printable
    http://www.netrox.net/~labush/lalm.htm
Robert Alan Black’s Creativity Challenges  52 challenges
    http://www.athens.net/~merrybeing/CC/index.html
Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought
    http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/strat/stratall.html

Publications
Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking   M. Neil Browne, Stuart M.
    Keeley (1997)  Prentice Hall
Big Tools for Young Thinkers   Susan Keller-Mathers, Kristin Puccio  (2000) Prufrock Press
Ellis, D. Becoming a Master Student 8th Rev edition (1998)  Houghton Mifflin College
Fact vs. Opinion. (teaching of critical thinking)   Joan Novelli  Instructor   March, 1999
Ferrett, Sharon. Peak Performance : Success in College & Beyond  2nd edition (1996)
Halpern, D.F. (1996). Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking
    (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Maiorana, Victor P. Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: Building the Analytical
    Classroom. Eric Clearinghouse 1992
Norris, Stephen P. "Synthesis of Research on Critical Thinking. Educational Leadership,
    v 42 n 8 May 1985. 40-45.
Toor, Ruth & Hilda K. Weisburg. Puzzles, Patterns (5 Problem Solving: Creative
   Connections to Critical Thinking). 176p. Library Learning Resources. 1999.

Games and Puzzles
Attribute Blocks   Gr. K - 12 Desk Set  $22.95   Pocket Set  $14.95   Activity Books
    Graphing circles sold separately
Battleship   Fr. 3 - up   2 player    Players use coordinate graphing on separate game boards
    to find and destroy ships.
Brick by Brick   Gr. 3 - up   5 3D brick pieces from symmetrical walls
    pictured on 60 puzzle cards   $12.50
Checkers, Chess, Chinese Checkers
Clue Gr. 4 - up   $23.99  and Clue Junior  Gr. 1-3   $14.99  Use logic and reasoning
Connect Four   Gr. 2 - up   Vertical Checkers make 4-in-a-row   $19.99
Eye-Cue Puzzles  Gr. K-1,  2-4,  3 - up   Multisolution 8 piece puzzles improve
    visual thinking and problem  solving   $15.95  four puzzles per set
Graphing Circles 6 circles  &14.95
Izzi   Gr. 3 - up   Multisolution puzzle   Match 64 diamond-shaped cards edge to edge
    4 colors per card $6.25
Mancala   Gr. 1 - up   Strategy game with few rules   Several Versions   $10.00-$15.00
Mastermind   Gr. 3 - up   $14.99
Outburst and Outburst Jr.  Gr. 3 - up   Guessing game using categories
Othello   Gr. 3 - up   Strategy game   2 Player   $19.95
Pattern Blocks   Gr. K - up  Many models, books, and activity cards available
Parquetry Blocks   Gr. K-2   Many models, books, and activity cards available
Pentominoes  Gr. K - up  Many models, books, and activity cards available
Scattergories Gr. 4 - up   Players or teams think of words within categories
    starting with a selected letter
Shape by Shape   Gr. 3 - up   14 Shape pieces - 60 challenge cards
    “Hint to Solutions” on back   $12.50
Slide 5   Gr. 3 - up   5 in a row strategy game   2 player   $19.95
Tangrams  Gr. K - up  [Also Tangoes] Many models, books, and activity cards available
Tessellation Shapes   Gr. 3 - up   Geometric, Letter, and Curlie Tessellations
    Tessellation Pack  180 Pieces  $45.40   Templates, Set of 10  $24.50
30 Second Mysteries   Gr. 5 - up   2 or more players
Traverse   Gr. 3 - up   Like Chinese Checkers with several thinking twists   2-4 players $19.95
TriBond   Gr. 5 - up   Game asks “What do 3 things have in common?”  Home Game
    CD Rom     Play online  TriBond®    http://www.tribond.com/
Tri-Ominoes   Gr. 2 - up   2-6 players   3 sided dominoes   $9.95
24 Game   Gr. 4-12  1 or more players   8 different versions cover mathematics and
    Algebraic Thinking    $21.95
Visual Brainstorms  Gr. 6 - up   100 of the science, perception and lateral thinking puzzles
    Solutions on back   $12.25
Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?  Gr. 4 - up   Geography mystery   $23.99
    Carmen USA Gr. 3 - up 2 to 4 players

My Favorite Companies
Discount School Supply   www.earlychildhood.com/Store/     800-627-2829
    General education supplies - arts and crafts
ETA/Cuisenaire  Manipulatives, science materials, and teacher resources
    www.etacuisenaire.com   800-445-5985   Math and Science
MPI   www.educationalideas.com    800-444-1773
    Math, Science, and Technology
Pearson Learning   [Dale Seymour Publications]   www.pearsonlearning.com/
    800-526-9907     Many unusual and creative resources     Math in literature books

Appendix

Words with Multiple Meanings

foot / hand         mountain / hill         guitar / banjo         floor / carpet         string / rubber band

bottle / can        cup / bowl             dollar / lettuce         frog / fish        frame / fence